WRITING RESEARCH REPORT

The purpose of an outline is to assist the Researcher think through the topic of the research carefully and organise the information to be used in the report logically. A good outline is the most important step in writing a good paper. The Reseacher should pay premium attention to the report outline to make sure that the points covered flow logically from one sub-topic to the to the other. Below is a typical research paper outline:

• Title page – authors’ names and affiliation here; contact information for “corresponding” author
• Abstract; Keywords
• Introduction
• Review of the literature
• Methodology
• Results
• Analysis
• Discussions
• Conclusion
• Recommendation
• References or bibliography and/or endnotes
• Appendices (if any)

See Step 11 of this paper for brief discussions of this outline.

Step 10: Write the initial draft of the research report

After the Researcher has completed the report outline, he/she can begin to write the initial draft. It is important to remember that this rough draft will be revised. Therefore, at this time, the Researcher does not need to worry too much about spelling or punctuation; instead, the Researcher should concentrate on the content of the paper.

Normally, the research report comprises several subsections, whereas the actual structure, organisation, and content depend heavily on the type of paper, for example:

• In empirical study (i.e. derived from experiment and observation rather than theory), the body of the report describes the material and data used for the study, the methodologies applied to answer the research questions, and the results obtained. It is very important that the study is described in a way that makes it possible for peers to repeat or to reproduce it.
• Case study papers describe the application of existing methods, theory or Crucial is the value of the reflections abstracted from the experience and their relevance to other designers or to Researcher’s working on related methods, theories or tools.
• Methodology papers describe a novel method which may be intended for use in research or practical settings (or both), but the paper should be clear about  the intended audience.
• Theory papers describe principles, concepts or models on which work in the field (empirical, experience, methodology) is based; authors of theoretical papers are expected to position their ideas within a broad context of related frameworks and Important criteria are the originality or soundness of the analysis provided as well as the relevance of the theoretical content to practice and/or research in the field.

Generally, the body of a paper answers two questions, namely:

• how was the research question addressed (materials, methods)?, and
• what were the findings (results)?

Step 11: Write the final draft of the research report

The final draft of the research paper should be typed and must include the title page, footnotes or endnotes, and a reference or bibliography as the case may be. The title page should include the title of the paper and the the Researcher’s name. The outline of a typical research report is given below:

• Title of report: Make sure this is clear and indicates exactly topic of the research. In other words, the title should be both brief and descriptive of the The readers should be able to make quick decisions as to whether they are going to spend their time to read the report largely based on the title. Thus, the title should not contain jargons. Rather, the title should be short (generally 15 words or less) and clearly indicate what the study is about.
• Abstract/Keywords: An abstract is a concise single paragraph summary of completed work or work in progress. In a minute or less a reader can learn the rationale behind the study, general approach to the problem, pertinent results, and important conclusions or new questions.

There are two types of abstracts—informative and descriptive. Descriptive abstract is like a table of contents whereas the informative abstract lays out the content of the document. The general feature of include the following:

• An abstract is a short informative or descriptive summary of a longer report.
• An abstract is a stand-alone statement that briefly conveys the essential information of a paper, article, document or book; presents the objective, methods, results, and conclusions of a research project; has a brief, non- repetitive style.
• Abstracts are important tools for readers, especially as they try to keep up with an explosion of information in print and on the Internet.

The abstract serves two major purposes:

• it helps a person decide whether to read the paper, and
• it provides the reader with a framework for understanding the paper if they decide to read it.

Thus, the abstract should describe the most important aspects of the study within the word-limit provided by the journal. As appropriate for the research, try to include a statement of the problem, the research instruments/ designs, the research population, the dependent and independent variables, major findings, and conclusions. If pressed for space, concentrate on the problem and, especially, the research findings.

Tit bits on Abstract

• The abstract must not contain references.
• Avoid use of “in this paper” in the
• Avoid general motivation in the You do not have to justify the importance of your research topic.
• Highlight not just the problem, but also the principal Many people read abstracts and then decide whether or not to read the rest of the research report.
• Since the abstract will be used by search engines, be sure that terms that identify your work are found there. In particular, the name of any protocol or system developed and the general area should be contained in the abstract

Introduction: The purpose of an introduction is to acquaint the reader with the rationale behind the research, with the intention of defending it. It places the research work in a theoretical context, and enables the reader to understand and appreciate the research objectives. Background information may include a brief review of the literature already available on the topic so that the Researcher is able to ‘place’ the research in the field.

Approaches vary widely, however for the purpose of illustration; the following approach can produce an effective introduction.

• Describe the importance (significance) of the study – why was this worth doing in the first place? Provide a broad context.
• Provide a rationale for the research. State the specific hypothesis(es) or objective(s), and describe the reasoning that led the Researcher to select them.
• Briefly describe the research methodology and how it accomplished the stated objectives.
• With regard to style, endeavour to observe the following:
  • Use past tense except when referring to established facts. After all, the research report will be submitted after all of the work is completed.
  • Present background information only as needed in order support a The reader does not want to read everything the Researcher knows about a subject.
  • State the hypothesis/objective precisely – do not oversimplify.
  • As always, pay attention to spelling, clarity and appropriateness of sentences and phrases.
  • Be sure that the introduction lets the reader know what this research is about, not just how important your general area of research is.
  • The introduction must motivate your work by pinpointing the problem you are addressing and then give an overview of your approach and/or contributions (and perhaps even a general description of your results). In this way, the intro sets up the readers expectations for the rest of your paper – as this will provide the context, and a preview.
  • Repeating the abstract in the introduction is a waste of space.
• Review of the literature: As indicated by Friedman (2006), literature review is based on the assumption that knowledge accumulates, and that we learn from and build on what others have done.

The literature review is itself a research method. It takes raw data (the annotated bibliography) and converts it into information (a critical appraisal). Friedman (op cit) counselled that the review should:

• be organised around and directly related to a research problem/question
• organise and synthesize the findings of previous Researchers into a summary of what is and is not known
• identify areas of controversy in the literature
• formulate questions and require further research

In doing literature review, the Researcher must carefully structure the research findings. It may be useful to do a chronological format where the Researcher discusses from the earliest to the latest research, placing the research appropriately in the chronology. Alternately, the Researcher could write in a thematic way, outlining the various themes that the Researcher discovered in the research regarding the topic. Again, the Researcher will need to state where the research fits.

Types of literature reviews:

• Context reviews – place the current project in the big picture
• Historical reviews – trace the development of an issue over time
• Integrative reviews – summarize what is known at a point in
• Methodological reviews – point out how methodology varies by
• Self-study reviews – increase reader’s confidence in the Researcher as well as the Researcher’s confidence in his/herself.
• Theoretical reviews – compare how different theories address an issue.

• Methodology: Here the Researcher should clearly outline the methodology used in the research i.e. what the Researcher did and how it was done. It must be clearly written so that it would be easy for another Researcher to replicate the research if there is need to. The objective is to document all specialized materials and general procedures, so that another Researcher may use some or all of the methods in another study or judge the merit of the research work. It is not to be a step by step description of everything the Researcher did, nor is a methods section a set of instructions.

A description of the research instruments, including all surveys, tests, questionnaires, interview forms, and other tools used to provide data, should appear in the materials subsection. Evidence of reliability and validity should be presented.

The design of the study, whether it is a case study, a survey, a controlled experiment, a meta-analysis, or some other type of research, is conveyed through the procedures sub-section. It is here that the activities of the Researcher are described, such as what was said to the respondents, how groups were formed, what control mechanisms were employed, etc. The description is sufficient if enough detail is present for the reader to replicate the essential elements of the study. It is important for the procedures to conform to ethical criteria for Researchers (APA, 1992).

What to avoid:

• Materials and methods are not a set of instructions.
• Omit all explanatory information and background – save it for the discussions.
• Omit information that is irrelevant to a third party, such as what colour of ice bucket the Researcher used, or which individual logged in the data

Clearly reference any material the Researcher has used from other sources. Clearly label and number any diagrams, charts, and graphs. Ensure that they are relevant to the research and add substance to the text rather than just duplicating what the Researcher has said. The Researcher does not include or discuss the results here.

• Results: This is where the Researcher indicates what the Researcher found in the The Researcher gives the results of the research, but do not interpret them. The Researcher should continue to be concise, using figures and tables, if appropriate, to present results most effectively.

For most research reports, the results should provide the summary details about what the Researcher found rather than an exhaustive listing of every possible analysis and every data point. Use carefully planned tables and graphs while tables and graphs should be self-explanatory. The Researcher should not include a table or graph unless it is discussed in the report. Limit them to those that help the reader understand the research data as they relate to the investigated problem.

General intent: The purpose of the results section is to present and illustrate the research findings. Make this section a completely objective report of the results, and save all interpretation for the discussion.

• Discussions: This is where the Researcher discusses the relevance of the research results and how the research findings fit with other research in the area. It will relate back to the literature review and the introductory thesis statement.

Interpret the research data in the discussion in appropriate depth. This means that when the Researcher explains a phenomenon, the Researcher must describe mechanisms that may account for the observation. If the results differ from the Researcher’s expectations, explain why that may have happened. If the research results agree, then describe the theory that the evidence supported. It is never appropriate to simply state that the data agreed with expectations. Explain all observations as much as possible, focusing on mechanisms. Decide if the result of the analysis or experimental design adequately addressed the hypothesis, and whether or not it was properly controlled.

General intent: The objective here is to provide an interpretation of the research results and support for all of the research conclusions, using evidence from the research experiment or field results and generally accepted knowledge, if appropriate. The significance of findings should be clearly described.

• Conclusion: This is a summary of the most significant results/findings. The Researcher should not include any new material in this section. Sometimes the Researcher could indicate some areas where the research has limits or where further research would be useful.
• Recommendations: This includes suggestions for what needs to be done as a result of the research findings. Recommendations are usually listed in order of
• References, bibliography or footnotes: This includes all references used in the research report or referred to for background In the bibliography,
  • Avoid the use of et al. in a bibliography unless list is very long (five or more authors). The author subsumed into et al. may be your consultant or the .. Note punctuation of et al..
  • Internet drafts must be marked “work in progress”.
  • Book citations must include publication years, but not the ISBN number.
  • Avoid long URLs; it may be sufficient to point to the general page and let the reader find the material. General URLs are also less likely to change.

Annotated bibliography. An annotated bibliography is an organised list of sources, each of which is followed by a brief note or “annotation”. These annotations do one or more of the following:

• describe the content and focus of the book or article
• suggest the source’s usefulness to the research
• evaluate its method, conclusions, or reliability
• record the Researcher’s reactions to the

Footnotes are a matter of style and the Researcher can check with the Researcherr instructor on the format he/she prefers. In general, though, a footnote is indicated by an Arabic numeral raised a half space above the line, placed after the sentence or passage to which it refers. Footnotes may be arranged in numerical order at the bottom of the page on which they appear or a separate page (labeled Endnotes) placed at the end of the report just before the bibliography. The bibliography is simply a list of the Researcherr sources arranged alphabetically by the last name of each author or editor.

Appendices: Some research reports may include information that helps the reader understand the argument but would be distracting if it were to appear in the text. If the Researcher includes appendices, they must be referred to in the body of the report and must have a clear purpose for being included.These materials should be titled and labeled (for example Appendix A: Questionnaire). The appendix needs to be referred to in the text so that the reader will know that additional information is available elsewhere in the document.

• Adding Explanatory Notes: Explanatory notes refer to additional sources or details on a topic, elaboration on statistics or other information beyond what is essential to the paper, refer the reader to a contrary position, explain variables in the evidence, describe testing procedures, and acknowledge individuals who helped in the research. Signal that the Researcher is adding an informational note by typing a superscript number in the text at an appropriate spot, usually at the end of a sentence.

Step 12. Revision and editing the research report

When the Researcher has finished the draft, he/she should read through the report it again and revise it. While reading through the report, particular attention should be paid to the organisation and content of the paper. Does each paragraph have a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement? Is each idea supported by evidence? Are there clear transitions from one section to another?   Are there clear transitions to indicate to the reader when one idea is ending and another one is beginning? Revision often requires many readings, each with its own purpose.

Reorganise the research outline if necessary, but always keep the purpose of the research paper and the readers in mind. Re-read the Research report for grammatical errors. Use a dictionary or a thesaurus as needed. Do a spell check if using a word processor. Correct all errors and improve the overall quality of the paper. Get someone else to read it over; sometimes a second pair of eyes can see mistakes that the Researcher may not readily see. Outlined below are some useful revision checklist:

• Is the thesis statement concise and clear?
• Is the outline followed? Is there any omission?
• Are the arguments presented in a logical sequence?
• Are all sources cited to ensure that there is no case of plagiarizing? Are all citations accurate and in correct format?
• Has the thesis statement been proved with strong supporting arguments? Are the arguments supported with any documented proof or examples?
• Has the Researcher made his/her intentions and points clear in the report?
• Is there any run-on or unfinished sentences? Any unnecessary or repetitious words? Does one paragraph or idea flow smoothly into the next? Any spelling or grammatical errors?
• Quotes accurate in source, spelling, and punctuation?
• Is there any contractions in the report? Use “cannot” instead of “can’t”, “do not” instead of “don’t”?
• Is there any use of third person in the report? Avoid using phrases such as “I think”, “I guess”, “I suppose”.
• Etcetera

The researcher should ensure that the final paper is tidy, neat, and attractive.

5.       MISTAKES THAT MUST BE AVOIDED IN WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS

• Poor organisation: This is the biggest problem; writing without a plan is like a pilot without a clue about where he is going. Failure to lead a reader through a report is a recipe for being misunderstood and ignored; reports that lack organisation fail to either inform or
• Spelling and capitalisation: The Researcher should make sure that each word is well A misspelt word will automatically change the meaning of a particular sentence e.g. spelling effect for affect. Also capital letters should be used where appropriate.
• Misused words: Do not use words the Researcher is not comfortable with. Try to use the right words.
• Lengthy paragraphs and sentences: A paragraph should not be too long so as not to bore the reader. Also restrict a sentence to a single idea. Do not pack too many thoughts in one sentence.
• Inappropriate tone: Inappropriate tone can destroy a message. A phrase that is well intended to the Researcher (e.g. “the Researcher alleges” or “the Researcher says”) may be perceived as offensive to another. Particular attention has to be paid to tone to decrease the chances of Be careful of words that might mean something very different than the Researcher intended.
• Avoid jargons, especially the overuse of acronyms and abbreviations. Nancy (2004) outlined the specific rules to keep acronyms and abbreviations under control. Some of these are:
  • Use the abbreviation without explanation, if everyone knows it. For example, IBM, USA, Washington DC, BMW, PhD
  • Avoid using an abbreviation if it is commonly understood as one term and the Researcher mean For example, avoid the use of PC for “Politically Correct” or for “Privy Council” as most people think of it as meaning “personal computer”.
  • Use the ten to twenty most common and understood acronyms in the Researcher’s organisation without explanation when writing internally. Prefer the full form and the shortened word form when writing to other audiences and especially if writing to the public.
  • Use the shortened word form to avoid most abbreviations. For example, Kennedy Space Centre becomes Centre—not KSC
  • Use common sense. If the abbreviation is better in the shortened form and causes no problems for any of the readers, use it freely. For example, if the Researcher is writing a leaflet about Personal Equity Plans and the word Plans could either confuse or become tedious, it might be better to use the shortened form PEP.
  • Limit the use of shortened forms to one or two, no matter the length of the report.
  • The abbreviations to avoid are the ones the Researcher thinks are necessary to explain in brackets the first time the Researcher use Each time the Researcher do this, the Researcher set a memory test for the reader of the report.
  • Use spelling checker to find acronyms and abbreviations in the report. This will clearly reveal if acronyms and abbreviations have been
  • Remember that using abbreviations and acronyms can go dreadfully wrong in the reader’s mind. In the United Kingdom, there is an acronym in common use called PMT for pre-menstrual tension; the United States equivalent is pre-menstrual One Engineer once wrote to a woman customer stating — “I intend to come and inspect your PMT next month.” He was referring to a Pole-Mounted Transformer!

6.       CONCLUSION

Disciplines vary in their ways of conducting research, in writing research papers, and in the form the final report takes. Individual instructors may also vary in their expectations of a research paper. Some may expect the Researcher to write a report that describes the research; some may emphasize analysis of the information/data the may Researcher have gathered; some may anticipate a report on original research. All these variations notwithstanding, this paper will provide guidance to every Researcher no matter their respective professional callings.

Finally, it should be remembered that when writing a research report, the Researcher should keep in mind that the purpose is to inform the readers of what the Researcher investigated, why and how the Researcher conducted the research, the results of the investigations and conclusions. As a Researcher and writer, the Researcher’s job is simply to report, not to convince and usually not to advocate. The Researcher must provide enough detail so readers can reach their own conclusions about the quality of the research and the veracity of the Researcher’s conclusions.

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